–
Processes
required to ensure that the project will satisfy the needs for which it was
designed
–
Includes
all activities of the overall management function that determine the quality
policy, objectives, and responsibilities.
These are implemented by quality planning, quality control, quality
assurance, and quality improvement
(Click
above for PMBOK4 Article)
•
3
major processes:
–
Quality
Planning – identifying quality standards that are relevant to the project
(Plan); Project Manager, Project Owner
–
Quality
Assurance – evaluating overall project performance to provide confidence that
project will satisfy relevant quality standards (Implement or Execution);
Project Team
–
Quality
Control – monitoring specific results to comply with quality standards and
eliminating unsatisfactory performance causes (Check or Control); Project
Manager, Project Team
•
Compatible
with ISO 9000 and 10000 series
•
Proprietary
and non-proprietary approaches (total quality management
•
Must
address the management of the project and the product of the project
•
Quality
– the totality of characteristics of an entity that bear on its ability to
satisfy stated or implied needs
–
Critical
aspect is to turn implied needs into stated needs through project scope
management
–
Do
not confuse with grade – category or rank given to entities having the same
functional use but different requirements for quality
–
Customer
satisfaction – conformance to specifications (must produce what is stated) and
fitness for use (must satisfy real needs)
–
Prevention
– avoid mistakes vs. cost of correction
–
Management
responsibility – requires participation of team; responsibility of management
to provide resources
–
Processes
within phases – plan-do-check-act cycle
•
Recognize
that the investment in product quality improvements may be borne by the
performing organization since the project may not last long enough to reap
reward
•
Quality
Planning
–
Identify
quality standards are relevant and how to satisfy
•
Inputs
to Quality Planning
–
Quality
Policy – the overall intentions and direction of an organization with regard to
quality as expressed by management
–
Scope
Statement
–
Product
Description
–
Standards
and Regulations
–
Other
Process Outputs – processes from other knowledge areas (procurement planning)
•
Tools
&Techniques for Quality Planning
–
Benefit/Cost
Analysis – consider trade-offs, benefit is less rework; cost is expense of
project management activities
–
Benchmarking
– comparing actual or planned practices to those of other projects
–
Flowcharting
•
Cause
and effect diagramming (Ishikawa or fishbone diagrams) illustrate how causes
relate to potential problems or effects
•
System
or Process flowcharts – show how various elements of the system interrelate
•
Helps
anticipation of what and where quality problems may occur
–
Design
of Experiments – analytical technique which defines what variables have most
influence of the overall outcome
•
Cost
and schedule tradeoffs
•
Outputs
from Quality Planning
–
Quality
Management Plan – describes how team will implement its quality policy;
describes the project quality system – organizational structures,
responsibilities, procedures, processes and resources needed to implement
quality management
–
Operational
Definitions – defines how an item is measured by the quality control
process. Also known as Metrics.
–
Checklists
– structured tool used to verify that a set of required steps has been
performed
–
Inputs
to other processes – may identify a need for further activity in another area
•
Quality
Assurance
–
All
planned and systematic activities implemented within the quality system to
provide confidence that the project will satisfy quality standards
•
Inputs
to Quality Assurance
–
Quality
Management Plan
–
Results
of quality control measurements (testing)
–
Operational
definitions
•
Tools
& Techniques for Quality Assurance
–
Quality
planning tools & techniques
–
Quality
Audits – structured review of quality management activities to identify lessons
learned
•
Outputs
from Quality Assurance
–
Quality
improvements – taking action to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of
the project to provide added benefits to the stakeholders
•
Most
likely will involve change control
•
Quality
Control – monitoring specific results to determine if they comply with quality
standards and identifying ways to eliminate causes of unsatisfactory results
–
Includes
project (deliverables) and management (cost and schedule performance) results
–
Awareness
of statistical quality control
•
Prevention
(keep errors out of process) and inspection (keep errors from customers)
•
Attribute
sampling (result conforms) and variable sampling
•
Special
Causes (unusual events) and random causes
•
Tolerances
(acceptable range) and control limits (result falls within range)
•
Inputs
to Quality Control
–
Work
results – include process and product results
–
Quality
Management Plan
–
Operational
Definitions
–
Checklists
•
Tools
& Techniques for Quality Control
–
Inspection
– activities such as testing to determine if results comply with requirements
–
Control
Charts – plot results over time
–
Pareto
diagrams – frequency of occurrence that identifies type or category of result
(80/20 rule) – guides corrective action
–
Statistical
sampling – select population of interest for inspection
–
Flowcharting
–
Trend
Analysis – forecast future outcomes based on historical results
•
Technical
performance (# of errors identified; # of errors that remain)
•
Cost
and Schedule performance (activities per period with significant variances)
•
Outputs
from Quality Control
–
Quality
Improvement
–
Acceptance
Decisions (accept/reject)
–
Rework
– action to bring defective item into compliance
•
Frequent
cause of project overruns
–
Completed
checklists
–
Process
Adjustments – immediate corrective/preventive actions
•
Most
likely involves change control
•
Tips
from the Review Guide
–
Philosophy:
definition of quality, avoidance of “gold plating” – giving customer extras,
prevention over inspection
–
“Conformance
to requirements, specifications and fitness of use”
–
Quality
Management – processes required to ensure that the project will satisfy the
needs for which it was undertaken
–
Continuous
Improvement - small improvements to
reduce costs and ensure consistency
–
Marginal
Analysis – optimal quality is reached at the
point when revenue from improvement equals the costs to secure it
–
Just
in Time - decrease amount of
inventory/decrease investment
–
ISO
9000 or 10000 – standards to ensure that corporations follow their own quality
procedures
–
Total
Quality Management – continuous improvement in business practices
–
Normal
Distribution – most common probability – used to measure variations
–
Standard
deviation (sigma) – measure how far away from the mean (dotted vertical line)
–
3
or 6 sigma – represents level of quality
•
+/-
1 sigma equal to 68.26%
•
+/-
2 sigma equal to 95.46%
•
+/-
3 sigma equal to 99.73%
•
+/-
6 sigma equal to 99.99%
–
Responsibility
to quality – entire organization
•
Ultimate
– employee
•
Overall
or Primary – Project Manager
•
Design
and Test Specifications – engineer
–
Prevention
over inspection – quality must be planned in not inspected in
–
Cost
of conformance vs. non-conformance
•
Quality
Training vs. rework
•
Studies
vs. Scrap
•
Surveys
vs. Inventory Costs and warranty costs
–
Quality
Planning (Plan) – determine what will be
quality on project and how quality will be measured – done during Planning
Phases
•
Identifying
which standards are relevant to project –how to satisfy them
•
Benchmarking
– look at past projects to determine ideas for improvement
•
Cost
Benefit Analysis
•
Flowcharts (fishbone)
•
Design
of Experiments
–
Quality
Assurance (Implement) – determine if your measurement of quality is appropriate
– done during Execution phases
•
Process
of evaluating overall performance on a regular basis
•
Quality
Audits – structured review of quality activities that identify lessons learned
–
Quality
Control (Check) – perform the measurement and compare to the quality plan –
done during Control phases
•
Process
of monitoring specific project results to determine if they comply with
relevant quality standards and identify ways of eliminating unsatisfactory
performance
•
Performance
of the measurement or process, using quality control tools – checking work
•
Quality
Control Tools
•
Pareto
Diagrams – 80/20 rule – the chart presents the information being examined in
its order of priority and helps focus attention on the most critical issues
•
Fishbone
diagram (Cause and Effect)
•
A
creative way to look at the causes or potential causes of a problem
•
Helps
stimulate thinking, organizes thoughts and generates discussion
•
Can
be used to explore a desired future outcome and the factors to which it relates
•
Quality
Control Tools
•
Checklists
– list of items to inspect
•
Control
Charts – graphic displays of the results over time – used to determine if a
process is in control
•
Upper
and Lower Control Limits – two dashed lines – show the acceptable range of a
variation – range determined by company’s quality standard (sigma)
•
Mean
– line in the middle – shows middle of the range of acceptable results
•
Specification
Limits – 2 solid lines outside the upper and lower control limits – represent
the customer's expectations/requirements of quality
•
Quality
Control Tools
•
Out
of Control – process is out of control when:
•
A
data point falls outside of the upper or lower control limit
•
Non-random
data points are within the upper control and lower control limits
•
Rule
of 7 – non-random points outside the mean
- process should be investigated
•
Assignable
Cause – data point the requires investigation to determine the cause of the
variation
•
PMI
and Deming
–
Cost
of conformance – 85% of costs of quality are responsibility of Management
•
Quality
Training – Rework
•
Studies
– Scrap
•
Surveys
– Inventory and Warranty costs
•
Crosby
– absolutes of quality
–
Performance
standard is zero defects; measurement system is cost of non-conformance Continuous
Improvement
–
Japanese
(Kaizen)
•
Marginal
Analysis – optimal quality is reached when incremental revenue from improvement
equals incremental cost to secure
•
Variable
– characteristic to be measured
•
Attribute
– measurement (objective or subjective)
•
Increase
quality = increased productivity, increased cost effectiveness, decreased cost
risk
•
Review
Guide Tips
–
Primary
responsibility for quality management is the PM
–
Results
of increase in quality
•
Increased
productivity
•
Increased
cost effectiveness
•
Decreased
cost risk
–
Quality
attributes – can be subjective, objective and are specific characteristics for
which a project is designed and tested
–
Quality
assurance – example is team training
–
Cost
of Conformance = team training
•
Review
Guide Tips
–
Marginal
Analysis: optimal quality is reached when incremental revenue from improvement
equals the incremental cost to secure
–
Standard
Deviation: how far away from mean
–
Variable:
characteristic you want to measure
–
Attribute:
measurement (subjective or objective)
–
Ultimate
Responsibility – Employee
–
Overall
Responsibility – PM
–
Design/Test
Specifications - Engineer
–
If
quality sample size increases, the quality control band decreases
–
Product
Cost plus Operations and Maintenance costs increase perceived value when
balanced
–
Cost
of Conformance = training
–
Crosby
Absolutes of Quality – performance of standard is zero defects and the
measurement system is the cost of non-conformance
–
Deming
& Japanese are associated with Quality Improvement programs
–
Quality
Control – performed by operating personnel
–
Quality
objectives are approved in conceptual stage by project owner
–
QA
– auditing function that provides feedback to team and client about quality of
output being produced
–
If
sample size is a constant and acceptance numbers increase, the producers risk
decreases and consumer risk increases
–
85%
of costs of quality are direct responsibility of management
